Literature Review

Teaching and Learning Forum 2000
Scaffolding: A model for learner support in an online teaching environment
Catherine McLoughlin
Teaching and Learning Centre
University of New England
and
Linda Marshall
Kurongkurl Katitjin, School of Indigenous Australian Studies
Edith Cowan University

In the design of online teaching environments, considerable attention has been paid to the nature of the interface and to the streamlining of activities for learners to engage with. Much less attention has been given however to the nature of the learner support system that is created for novice users learning online. Support systems are essential for learners to engage in the processes of learning and need to be developed in response to needs. It is also imperative that a range of support systems be put in place to enable learners to become competent in learning online, and to learn to interact in a virtual environment. Such skills are now recognised as part of the lifelong learning competencies or generic attributes that universities seek to develop in their graduates. In this paper we offer a theoretical and pragmatic rationale for the development of learning support for online learning, which comprises both resources that learners can access in order to achieve learning outcomes and procedural scaffolds that support the communication process. Examples of support mechanisms are drawn from two pre-tertiary bridging units offered to Indigenous external students studying online.

Relevant because of scaffolding, Shuell, and design. Downloaded into Sheffield and printed.

Teaching and Learning Forum 96
Higher levels of agency for students: Participation, self-regulation and the learning process
Catherine McLoughlin
Science, Technology and Engineering
Edith Cowan University

Constructivist approaches to learning (Marton, 1984; Palincsar & Brown 1984; Simons 1993; Shuell, 1988) have emphasised that learning is an active, constructive, cumulative and goal-directed activity. Other characteristics of constructive learning are that learners should be diagnostic and reflective. This means that learners are able to undertake activities like monitoring and self-testing to help them judge whether they are still pursuing the goals they have set. Particular competencies, attributes or qualities are necessary to constructive and lifelong learning and to participation in further education. In this paper it is argued that the essential ingredient is that the learners themselves become active participants in the learning process. Only the learner can be a diagnostician of her/his own learning; an outsider (like a lecturer) can never have access to the mind of the learner. Only a goal that the learner defines and strives for herself/himself can be meaningful. The lecturer cannot force students to have goals they don't want. Therefore constructive learning pre-supposes self-regulated learning.

The dilemma/paradox that must be faced is that while most teachers believe that self-regulated, independent learning is important, many do not believe that students are capable of self-regulation. Consequently, they organise all the events of instruction and in so doing, deprive the learners of opportunities to develop such skills. On the other hand students may believe that teacher should make all the decisions about learning and are happy to abdicate all responsibility. It is obvious therefore that there are conceptions to be changed and regulation processes to be learned by both parties to the teaching/learning process. In the university context, is critical to create environments to support self-regulatory processes, and research indicates that apprenticeship systems offer pedagogical principles which can be effectively adopted.

This paper is very relevant because it discusses the conflicting expectations of students and teachers which are similar to my current environment. Useful as the contextual information where a new pedagogical approach in designing learning materials and tasks will be introduced and implemented. This contextual information will allow the researcher to inteprete the reactions and responses of students and teachers alike towards the new approach. Downloaded and printed.

Please add the links the to the literature reviewed for easy browsing and downloading later on.

Constructivism in mass Higher Education: a case study

Stephen J. Bostock, Department of Computer Science,
Keele University, UK
1998

Abstract

How can constructivist principles be applied to mass Higher Education? Can computer-based media enable it? Constructivism implies an environment with learner control, authentic learning contexts and diverse social interactions. The constraints of mass higher education make this impossible by traditional methods but computer-based media may enable it. A new semester course about the Internet for 300 students provided an opportunity to attempt such a course design, using the World Wide Web, email, video, and other media. The case study describes the course design based on constructivist principles, its implementation and evaluation.

Relevant because it touches on the process of introducing constructivist framework in higher education. Because it is a case study, the methodology may prove to be useful. Saved in Ikarus folder for reading.

Higher education staff experiences of using web-based learning technologies

Debra Salmon and Mathew Jones
Faculty of Health and Social Care
University of the West of England
Bristol, BS16 1DD
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 117 328 8468 / 8769
Fax: +44 117 328 8437
Debra.Salmon@uwe.ac.uk
Matthew.Jones@uwe.ac.uk

Abstract
Given the drive in higher education institutions to employ web-based learning (WBL) technologies in their curricula, this article sets out to address the question of how staff experience the incorporation of such technologies into their educational practice. The study focuses on an initiative involving four institutions in South and West England that aimed to encourage the strategic development of WBL resources in health and welfare professional education programmes. Thirty-three higher educational staff from a range of organisational locations took part in a qualitative process study. The findings suggest that while staff were enthusiastic about their engagement with WBL they experienced problems embedding their project work within their organisations, managing their time and obtaining institutional recognition for their work. Such findings represent a challenge to commentaries that emphasise “technological illiteracy” or “technophobia” amongst staff as barriers to WBL implementation. The study favours an analysis that emphasises how WBL initiatives are incorporated into existing higher education managerial, decision-making and reward structures.

Keywords: Higher education, Staff, Web-based learning, Organisational research

Relevan because it deals again with perception and experiences of the faculty in using online learning. Downloaded and printed.

Emerging Online Learning Environments and Student Learning: An Analysis of Faculty Perceptions

Carrie B. Myers
Department of Education, Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59717-0288 USA
cbmyers@montana.edu

Dennis Bennett, Gary Brown, Tom Henderson
Center for Teaching, Learning, and Technology, Washington State University
Box 644550, Pullman, Washington 99164-4550 USA
dbennett@mail.wsu.edu
browng@wsu.edu
tom@wsu.edu

ABSTRACT

New educational technologies and online learning environments (OLEs) are infiltrating today’s college classes and campuses. While research has examined many aspects of this permeation, one research gap exists. How do faculty perceive the learning experience in courses that use OLEs compared to courses that do not? One important factor that may influence faculty perceptions are their reasons for teaching with OLEs. This paper seeks to understand how faculty perceive OLEs as a function of their reasons for teaching with this educational technology. This paper also investigates whether faculty evaluations of OLEs differ based on gender and by years teaching. The results of the analysis reveal several noteworthy patterns. First, it appears that favorable opinions about the learning experiences in online learning environments are not because faculty are motivated to learn about new technologies per se, but because they want to update their vitas and teaching skills. Second, the results suggest that it may be harder to convince older and more experienced faculty to use new technologies compared to younger and less experienced faculty. These results apply to both male and female faculty and provide practical implications for universities and support services on how to recruit and then support faculty who implement educational technologies.

Keywords: Higher education, Learning technologies, Online education

Relevant because it deals with perceptions of lecturers on online learning. Download and printed.

Applying Constructivist and Objectivist Learning Theories in the Design of A Web-Based Course: Implications for Practice

Mahnaz Moallem, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Instructional Technology
University of North Caroloina at Wilmington
Watson School of Education, Dept. of Specialty Studies
601 S. College Rd. , Wilmington, NC 28411 USA
Tel: +1 910 962 4183
Fax: +1 910 962 3609
moallemm@uncwil.edu


ABSTRACT

The paper provides an overview of the process of designing and developing a Web-based course using instructional design principles and models. First, it will describe instructional design principles and models and how they can be used in designing web-based instruction. Second, upon establishing an instructional design model, it will explain the process of implementing the model in designing and developing a web-based undergraduate teacher education course. Finally, the instructional design model is evaluated in light of the processes and findings from the implementation and evaluation results of the web-based course.

Keywords: Constructivism, Learning theories, Objectivism, Web-based instruction

Relevant because it related to learning theories and course design. This has been downloaded and printed

Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for Transforming Distance Learning

Maureen Tam
Acting Director
Teaching and Learning Centre
Lingnan University, Tuen Mun
Hong Kong, China
Tel: +852 26167577
Fax: +852 25725706
mtam@ln.edu.hk

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the characteristics and value of designed instruction grounded in the constructivist theory. It also attempts to connect the theory to the prevailing technology paradigms to establish an alignment between pedagogical and technological considerations in support of the assumptions arising from constructivism. Distance learning provides a unique context in which to infuse constructivist principles where learners are expected to function as self-motivated, self-directed, interactive, collaborative participants in their learning experiences by virtue of their physical location. Hence, the aim of this paper is to provide a clear link between the theoretical principles of constructivism, the construction of technology-supported learning environments, and the practice of distance education. The questions driving the argument in this paper include: What do constructivist perspectives offer instructional design and practice? What do computing technologies offer? And what do the two afford in combination? In particular, how do the two combine to transform distance learning from a highly industrialized mass production model to one that emphasizes subjective construction of knowledge and meaning derived from individual experiences.

Keywords: Constructivism, Instructional Design, Technology, Distance Learning.

This paper was introduced to me by Sharon from Ikarus. The paper is relevant because it talks about constructivism and pedagogical design. Download and printed.

Gerry's CSCL Papers

Here is a collection of writings on issues of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). They were written primarily by one person during the decade from 1993 to 2003, but they represent the collaborative efforts of many and reflect the current concerns of the field. They are grouped into Sections on empirical analysis, system design, theoretical framework and practical application, although they are inherently interwoven. Each was written for a particular occasion with a unique focus, but questions in one paper emerge from and anticipate ideas in others.

Interesting papers on CSCL especially the ones on the computer enviroment.

Guiding Principles for Facilitating Higher Levels of Web-Based Distance Teaching and Learning in Post-Secondary Settings

Distance Education 1 October 2002, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 163-182(20)

Kanuka H.

Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to develop guiding principles to encourage higher levels of teaching and learning in Web-based distance education. The research framework used Zetterberg's (1962) model for change. Data from semi-structured interviews with university instructors who had experience in teaching Web-based distance education courses, a focus group interview with educational technologists, a review of related literature, and my own reflective journal, provided insights for the development of teaching and learning principles. A validation process was then conducted from experts and scholars in the field through a consensus survey. The outcome was the development of a model with nine principles that facilitate higher levels of teaching and learning in Web-based distance education.

Relevant because of the model in designing web-based learning. Download and printed.

Title: Navigation Entailments as Design Principles for Structuring Hypertext
Author(s): Pierre Fastrez
Source: Education, Communication and Information Volume: 2 Number: 1 Page: 7 -- 22
DOI: 10.1080/1463631022000005007
Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group

Abstract: This article introduces a number of guidelines for the design of instructional hypertext, and more specifically for the design of their structure. First, to demonstrate the importance of structure in hypertext design, it considers the entailments of the semiotic specificities of hypertext systems on the design of hypertext structure as well as on the way users understand this structure during their navigation experience. It then introduces two pairs of opposite principles (rationality vs. functionality; usability vs. cognitive flexibility), and examines how and in which contexts they should be used. These pairs of principles are criss-crossed to pinpoint the overlapping between them and to stress their differences. Finally, this analysis leads to questioning the hopes that have been held towards hypertext (and its semiotic peculiarities) as an instructional tool that would make it easy for any learner to informally grasp complex knowledge structures. Such hopes can only be fulfilled through the use of complementary semiotic tools.

Relevant because of the semiotic framework to develop learning resources, in this case hypertext. Download and printed.

Learner Support in Distance and Networked Learning Environments: Ten Dimensions for Successful Design

Distance Education 1 October 2002, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 149-162(14)

McLoughlin C.

Abstract:
How do educators and instructional designers assess the effectiveness of the learning environments they design? One important means of ensuring the effectiveness of instruction in distance and face-to-face settings is through provision of learner support. Increasingly, as learners utilize the World Wide Web for collaborative learning, support systems contribute to the processes of learning and assist the learner in developing competencies and confidence in self-regulated learning and social interaction. Originating in the socio-cultural perspective of Vygotskyan theory, the term scaffolding refers to learning support based on social constructivist models of learning. As the World Wide Web becomes increasingly integrated into the delivery of learning experiences at primary, tertiary and secondary levels, the concept of scaffolding needs to be reconsidered because it is not readily translated into contexts where the teacher is not present, such as in online learning environments. The aim of this paper is to offer a conceptualization of the term scaffolding in distance learning, to provide examples of how learners can be supported in the processes of constructivist inquiry in a range of learning settings, and to offer principles for the design of learning support that can be applied across a range of instructional settings.

Relevant because of the concept of design and scaffolding. Lot's of relevant terms and examples making it an easy reading. Hard copy downloaded and printed.

Enhancing Quality in Online Learning: Scaffolding Planning and Design Through Proactive Evaluation

Distance Education 1 October 2002, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 135-148(14)

Sims R.; Dobbs G.; Hand T.

Abstract:
A major issue confronting educators is the extent to which they wish to conform to so-called paradigm shifts in teaching and learning. In the contemporary world of tertiary education these shifts embrace both pedagogy (from instructivist to constructivist) and technology (from classroom to online). As teachers and learners are faced with the potential of these new learning environments, the extent to which learning outcomes are achieved remains a high priority and subject to a wide range of evaluation strategies. Conventionally, evaluation has been positioned at the end of the instructional development cycle, to assess first whether or not the creative effort achieved the original product goals and second whether or not the desired learning outcomes were realized. In the context of online teaching and learning environments, however, the level of understanding teachers, learners and developers have of the medium can impact the ultimate effectiveness of the product. This paper articulates an additional dimension to post-development evaluation processes in proposing proactive evaluation, a framework that identifies critical online learning factors and influences that will better inform the planning, design and development of learning resources. This notion of proactive evaluation advocates resource development being undertaken where all planning activities are assessed against the evaluation criteria that would normally be applied during formative assessment. By performing these evaluation checks proactively, online learning resources will, in principle, work first time as all relevant factors and issues will have been considered and resolved. More importantly, for those participants who are new to online environments, proactive evaluation will perform a scaffolding and professional development role by enhancing online teaching or learning competencies.

Relevant because it relates the design of the course to the production of learning resources. Hard copy downloade and printed.

Papers downloaded to Sheffield > Literature > Sheffield EJournals


Contemporary Learning Environments: Designing e-Learning for Education in the Professions
Segrave S.; Holt D.
Distance Education, May 2003, vol. 24, iss. 1, pp. 7-24(18)


The Use of Flexible Learning Resources for Geographically Distributed Rural Students
Rennie F.
Distance Education, May 2003, vol. 24, iss. 1, pp. 25-39(15)


Towards Identifying Factors Underlying Readiness for Online Learning: An Exploratory Study
Smith P.J.; Murphy K.L.; Mahoney S.E.
Distance Education, May 2003, vol. 24, iss. 1, pp. 57-67(11)


Transactional Presence as a Critical Predictor of Success in Distance Learning
Shin N.
Distance Education, May 2003, vol. 24, iss. 1, pp. 69-86(18)

Collaborative Development and Evaluation of an Online Nursing Course

Distance Education May 2003, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 41-56(16)

Alexander J.W.[1]; Polyakova-Norwood V.; Johnston L.W.; Christensen P.; Loquist R.S.
College of Nursing, University of South Carolina-Columbia, USA Distance Education and Instructional Support, University of South Carolina-Columbia, USA School of Nursing, University of South Carolina-Aiken, USA Retired, formerly at Mary Black Sch

Abstract:
Institutions of higher education acknowledge that online learning represents a growing segment of the modern learning environment, and most students have mastered basic computer skills. However, reluctance to engage in online learning remains among both faculty and students. This article presents a case study of three schools of nursing that collaboratively developed and implemented an online undergraduate-nursing course. The article discusses the challenges that were encountered by faculty and students. The faculty used the distance education literature to address these challenges related to technological, institutional, and pedagogical aspects of online learning, as well as the recruitment and retention of online learners. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the course. The paper concludes with suggestions to overcome the challenges of online learning, such that faculty and students receive the inherent rewards.

Relevant because this paper talks about the process of collaborative development of a course in Blackboard and also measures its effectiveness. Hard copy downloaded and printed.

Promises of Interactivity: Aligning Learner Perceptions and Expectations With Strategies for Flexible and Online Learning

Distance Education May 2003, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 87-103(17)

Sims R.
Academic Director, QANTM Education, Australia

Abstract:
The discourse of flexible and online learning echoes with terms such as communication, collaboration, engagement and interactivity. Of these, interactivity is frequently used to refer to an inherent quality of the medium and learning environment, with an underlying assumption that the interactive characteristics of communication with other learners or content objects is beneficial to the learning process. However, interactivity as a concept has received comparatively little research attention. To provide further insights into the dynamics of interactivity, this study reports on an investigation to ascertain the different ways people perceive interactivity, and the extent to which that interactivity adds value to the learning process. Based on a qualitative analysis of responses from 68 participants, it was found that participants indeed had specific expectations of interactivity that were not only consistent with theoretical frameworks of learning but also provided insights for the design of online collaborative learning environments.

Hard copy printed. Relevant because of the notion on perception and interaction.

The Pedagogy Behind Blogs

Current educational research and theory have demonstrated the importance of social interaction in teaching and learning. Drawing on Vygotsky's educational theory (1978), educators highlight the "knowledge construction" processes of the learner and suggest that "meaning making" develops through the social process of language use over time. As such, knowledge construction is discursive, relational and conversational in nature. Therefore, as students appropriate and transform knowledge, they must have authentic opportunities for publication of knowledge.

Relevant because of the notion of meaning-making which is similar to Kress' point of view in his book 'Multimodal Teaching and Learning".

Collaborative learning environments sourcebook

This book is a resource for academics and students who want to develop collaborative learning environments (or communities of practice) in which people work together to create new knowledge while learning new skills. See also the background info about the book.

What Is the New Paradigm of Instructional Theory

I would like to outline what I think are some of the major issues in instructional theory at present.

I believe the most significant issue is that we need a new paradigm of instructional theory (in addition to a new paradigm of the ISD process, which I won't go into here). I talked about both at some length in the May issue of Educational Technology (Reigeluth, 1996), but let me reiterate here that I see the new paradigm of instructional theory as focusing on customized learning that fosters learner empowerment, initiative, and responsibility, as well as teamwork, thinking skills, metacognitive skills, and diversity.

Journal of Digital Contents (JCD)

The international Journal of Digital Contents (JCD) is a quarterly journal about the planning, production, process, presentation and managment of digital contents, from several perspectives: technical, educational and social/legal. It will mainly cover research papers and technical notes, as well as case studies. It is devoted to the rapid publication of new findings in these areas. Full and mini-reviews and provocative editorials which discuss and review the hottest topics of the moment will be also considered.

The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

A methodology for the application of different instructional design paradigms for the implementation of learning management systems using Learning Objects

The objective of this work is to suggest a Methodology to enable the treatment of different paradigms of instructional design, theories and methods of learning that will establish the foundation of the instantiation process of a Learning Management System (LMS). The Taxonomy of Learning Activities is based on the categorization of Learning Objects (LOs) and will enable the configuration of a course to assist a specific target audience.


Journal of Digital Contents, Volume 2, Issue 1; Jan, 2004
Special issue on Digital Learning/Teaching Environments and Contents

Getting the Mix Right Again: An Updated and Theoretical Rationale for Interaction

Terry Anderson
Athabasca University – Canada’s Open University

No topic raises more contentious debate among educators than the role of interaction as a crucial component of the education process. This debate is fueled by surface problems of definition and vested interests of professional educators, but is more deeply marked by epistemological assumptions relative to the role of humans and human interaction in education and learning. The seminal article by Daniel and Marquis (1979) challenged distance educators to get the mixture right between independent study and interactive learning strategies and activities. They quite rightly pointed out that these two primary forms of education have differing economic, pedagogical, and social characteristics, and that we are unlikely to find a “perfect” mix that meets all learner and institutional needs across all curricula and content. Nonetheless, hard decisions have to be made.

Journal of Distance Education

The conversion of CADE Journal to the online format you see here was done by ICAAP. Currently there are over 102 open access scholarly journals and resources affiliated with ICAAP and 193 free resources in the ICAAP journals database.

A prescriptive study of early trends in implementing e-learning in the UK Higher Education Sector

Nicos Souleles
Cumbria Institute of the Arts, Carlisle, UK
nicos@cumbria.ac.uk
February, 2004

Abstract
Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) are widely implemented in the UK Higher Education (HE) sector and many institutions are engaged in implementing e-learning. The drivers for this rapid technological change consist of a combination of persistent external pressures and the enticing prospect of improvements. This paper examines whether the benefits of e-learning have materialised and how this relates to organisational change, policies and strategies. Post-Fordist models of management and prescriptive approaches to implementing technological change provide the theoretical framework. This qualitative investigation focuses on the significance in the implementation process of institutional policies, staff incentives for development, quality control processes, inter-departmental collaboration, the need to re-evaluate teaching methodologies, and the importance of feedback mechanisms.

Assessing Social Presence In Asynchronous Text-based Computer Conferencing:

Liam Rourke, Terry Anderson D., Randy Garrison, & Walter Archer

"Abstract
Instructional media such as computer conferencing engender high levels of student-student and student-teacher interaction; therefore, they can support models of teaching and learning that are highly interactive and consonant with the communicative ideals of university education. This potential and the ubiquity of computer conferencing in higher education prompted three of the authors of the this article to develop a community of inquiry model that synthesizes pedagogical principles with the inherent instructional and access benefits of computer conferencing (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). This article explicates one element of the model, social presence. Social presence is defined as the ability of learners to project themselves socially and affectively into a community of inquiry. A template for assessing social presence in computer conferencing is presented through content analysis of conferencing transcripts. To facilitate explication of the scheme and subsequent replication of this study, selections of coded transcripts are included, along with interrater reliability figures. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications and benefits of assessing social presence for instructors, conference moderators, and researchers."

Sloan-C-Publications-Journal: JALN-Vol5:2:

"Assessing Teaching Presence in a Computer Conferencing Context"

Terry Anderson, Liam Rourke, D. Randy Garrison, Walter Archer

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a tool developed for the purpose of assessing teaching presence in online courses that make use of computer conferencing, and preliminary results from the use of this tool. The method of analysis is based on Garrison, Anderson, and Archer's [1] model of critical thinking and practical inquiry in a computer conferencing context. The concept of teaching presence is constitutively defined as having three categories - design and organization, facilitating discourse, and direct instruction. Indicators that we search for in the computer conference transcripts identify each category. Pilot testing of the instrument reveals interesting differences in the extent and type of teaching presence found in different graduate level online courses.

IHMC Concept Map Software:

"The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How To Construct Them"

REREAL:

"TOWARDS A FRAMEWORK IN OPEN FLEXIBLE LEARNING"

Manual provided

T.H.E. Journal Online: Technological Horizons in Education

T.H.E. Journal is the solid foundation of a rapidly expanding suite of information-based products and services offered by T.H.E. To be sure, it is the longest running, most widely read education technology publication, serving the educators for over 30 years! It is FREE to educators in the United States.

Sloan-C Publications - Journal: JALN:

"The aim of the Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks is to describe original work in asynchronous learning networks (ALN), including experimental results. Our mission is to provide practitioners in online education with knowledge about the very best research in online learning. Papers emphasizing results, backed by data are the norm. Occasionally, papers reviewing broad areas are published, including critical reviews of thematic areas. Entire issues are published from time-to-time around single topic or disciplinary areas. The Journal adheres to traditional standards of review and authors are encouraged to provide quantitative data. The original objective of the Journal was to establish ALN as a field by publishing articles from authoritative and reliable sources. The Journal is now a major resource for knowledge about online learning."